Institute  of  International  Education 


International  Relations  Clubs 
Syllabus  No.  IX 


China  Under  the  Republic 
By  Kenneth  Scott  Latourette, 


Professor  of  History  in  Denison  University 


September,  1921 


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Institute  of  International  Education 


9 

International  Relations  Clubs 
Syllabus  No.  IX 


China  Under  the  Republic 


By  Kenneth  Scott  Latourette 

Professor  of  History  in  Denison  University 


September,  1921 


PREFACE 


Americans  are  gradually  awakening  to  the  significance  of  their 
relations  with  the  east  of  Asia.  With  every  passing  year  it  is 
becoming  more  evident  that  these  are  shortly  to  be,  if  indeed  they 
are  not  already,  quite  as  important  as  those  with  Europe.  Ameri¬ 
can  business,  American  missions,  and  American  diplomacy  are  all 
intimately  concerned  with  the  Far  East  and  we  are  in  addition 
constantly  confronted  with  the  problem  of  immigration  from  the 
Orient.  Because  of  these  contacts  and  the  complications  which 
they  involve,  it  is  obviously  necessary  that  Americans  should  make 
themselves  familiar  with  the  nations  whose  neighbors  we  have 
become.  College  curriculums  have  been  slow  to  adjust  themselves 
to  the  need  and  in  but  a  very  few  is  there  given  anything  that 
approaches  adequate  recognition  of  our  trans-Pacific  neighbors. 
We  are,  fortunately,  well  supplied  with  courses  on  European  history 
and  institutions,  but  to  the  Far  Orient  our  university  schedule- 
makers  pay  only  the  scantiest  attention.  While  this  remains  true, 
the  need  must  in  part  be  met  by  informal,  extra-curriculum  groups. 
It  is  to  meet  the  needs  of  such  of  these  groups  as  wish  to  study 
China  that  this  syllabus  is  prepared.  The  purpose  is  to  make 
possible  an  understanding  of  the  China  of  today,  and  to  this  end 
attention  has  been  centered  on  the  developments  of  the  past  few 
years.  It  is  essential,  however,  to  have  as  well  some  knowledge 
of  the  background  of  the  decade,  and  to  that  end  three  preliminary 
sections  are  devoted  to  the  outstanding  features  of  the  geographic 
environment  and  of  the  history  and  the  culture  of  the  China  of  1911. 

For  bibliographical  references  there  have  been  named  some  of 
the  important  books  that  are  most  frequently  accessible.  Longer 
selected  bibliographies  will  be  found  in  the  author’s  Development  of 
China  and  in  Wheeler,  China  and  the  World  War.  Those  students 
who  wish  to  keep  abreast  of  events  will  find  Asia  (New  York  City) 
a  useful  monthly,  and  for  more  detailed  and  frequent  news,  they 
probably  can  not  do  better  than  to  follow  Millard's  Review ,  a 
weekly  published  in  Shanghai  by  an  American.  The  latter  publi¬ 
cation  is  unblushingly  anti-Japanese,  but  it  is  very  useful  when 

l3l 


due  allowance  is  made  for  this  bias.  The  Far  Eastern  Review ,  a 
monthly,  is  also  published  in  Shanghai  by  an  American,  and  is 
thoroughly  pro-Japanese.  It  is  largely  concerned  with  engineer¬ 
ing  and  business,  but  it  has  from  time  to  time  interesting  and 
important  articles  on  current  happenings  in  other  fields.  In  most 
publications  on  present  Far  Eastern  conditions  and  problems, 
whether  books  or  periodicals,  the  reader  must  be  constantly  on  his 
guard  against  bias.  On  few  topics,  even  in  these  days  of  violent 
controversy,  is  there  more  prejudice  shown  than  in  the  current  dis¬ 
cussions  of  China  and  Japan,  and  on  none  is  it  more  important  to 
preserve  a  fair  and  appraising  mind. 


\ 


\ 


K.  S.  Latourette 


I 


GEOGRAPHY  AND  NATURAL  RESOURCES 

A.  Two  main  divisions. 

1.  China  proper.  The  eighteen  provinces.  Fitted  by  nature  to  be  the  home 

of  a  great  civilization. 

(a)  Area,  about  one-third  the  size  of  the  United  States  without  Alaska. 

(b)  Fertile  soil,  well  endowed  with  deposits  of  minerals,  especially  of  coal 

and  iron. 

(c)  A  climate  favorable  to  civilization. 

(d)  The  principal  drainage  systems,  the  Yangtze,  Yellow,  and  West 

Rivers.  Of  these  the  Yangtze  and  its  navigable  tributaries  form 
an  artery  for  commerce  which  gives  access  to  the  heart  of  the 
country. 

(e)  The  population  is  largely  Chinese  and  is  fairly  homogeneous. 

(f)  Given  its  natural  resources,  the  country  could  be  expected  to  nourish 

civilization.  Most  of  these  resources  are  either  unexhausted  or 
untouched  so  that  a  great  future  should  be  expected  in  industry,  _ 
agriculture,  and  commerce.  It  has  the  minerals  and  can  produce 
the  foodstuffs  to  support  a  large,  self-sufficing,  and  prosperous 
people. 

2.  The  outlying  districts.  Tibet,  the  New  Territory  (Sin  Kiang),  Mongolia, 

and  Manchuria. 

(a)  All  but  Manchuria  are  semi-arid  and  are  inhabited  chiefly  by  non- 

Chinese  races.  The  Chinese  are  settling  southern  Mongolia. 

(b)  Manchuria  is  very  fertile  and  within  the  last  hundred  years  has  been 

entered  by  thousands  of  Chinese  who  are  rapidly  making  it  in  cul¬ 
ture  and  population  largely  their  own. 

(c)  These  territories  have  in  past  ages  been  the  source  of  many  invasions 

of  China  proper  and  were  acquired  by  the  imperial  government  to 
prevent  such  inroads. 

(d)  These  territories  are  also  very  extensive  and  include  on  their  far 

boundaries  some  of  the  highest  plateaus  and  mountain  ranges  in 
the  world.  In  the  days  before  railways  and  large  sailing  ships, 
they  effectively  shut  China  off  from  all  but  the  most  limited  inter¬ 
course  with  India,  Central  Asia,  the  Near  East,  and  Europe.  Lack 
of  intimate  contact  with  other  civilizations  slowed  down  China’s 
progress  and  bred  in  her  an  intense  pride. 

Readings: 

L.  Richard,  Comprehensive  Geography  of  the  Chinese  Empire ,  Shanghai, 
1908.  This  is  a  fairly  complete  topographical  description. 

[  5  1 


S.  W.  Williams,  The  Middle  Kingdom  (Latest  edition).  Scribner's,  1907, 
Vol.  1,  Chaps.  1-4,  especially  Chap.  1.  A  standard,  fairly  full  account. 
K.  S.  Latourette,  The  Development  of  China ,  Houghton  Mifflin  Co.,  1920, 
(revised  edition)  Chap.  1. 

Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  article  China ,  pp.  166-169. 


II 

SOME  OUTSTANDING  FEATURES  OF  CHINA’S  HISTORY 

BEFORE  1911 

A.  Comparative  isolation  from  other  civilizations  due  to  barriers  of  sea,  mountain, 

and  semi-arid  plateau. 

1.  Chinese  culture  was  largely  indigenous. 

2.  A  few  foreign  contributions  came  by  way  of  the  overland  trade  routes  from 
Central  Asia  and  by  the  sea  route  to  the  South  coasts.  Among  them  were: 

(a)  Buddhism,  one  of  the  three  main  religions  of  the  old  China,  bringing 

with  it  much  of  Indian  and  Central  Asiatic  thought,  art,  and  litera¬ 
ture. 

(b)  Mohammedanism,  never  having  a  dominant  influence. 

B.  China  became  the  cultural  center  of  the  Far  East,  the  source  of  much  of  the 

civilization  of  her  immediate  neighbors,  especially  Japan,  Korea,  and  Annam. 

C.  China  was  frequently  invaded  and  occasionally  conquered  in  whole  or  in  part 

by  the  semi- civilized  nomads  of  the  East  and  North. 

1.  These  left  in  the  Chinese  a  strong  admixture  of  their  blood,  especially 

north  of  the  Yangtze. 

2.  These  always  adopted  Chinese  culture  and  were  gradually  absorbed  into 

the  Chinese  race.  (There  are  a  few  partial  exceptions,  such  as  the 
Moslems.) 

3.  The  Manchus  were  the  latest  of  these  conquerors.  They  mastered  China 

(1644  and  the  years  immediately  following)  and  gave  China  a  dynasty 
which  lasted  until  1911. 

D.  China's  history  is,  viewed  from  one  angle,  a  series  of  dynasties,  some  of  them 

native  and  some  of  them  foreign,  beginning  at  least  as  early  as  the  second 
millennium  before  Christ.  After  each  of  the  great  dynasties  there  followed 
a  period  of  disorder.  Sometimes  this  was  long  and  sometimes  short. 
During  it,  military  chieftains  or  invaders  struggled  for  the  throne  and 
drenched  the  country  in  blood  until  one  had  made  himself  master  of  the 
nation  and  had  established  his  family  on  the  throne. 

E.  The  general  tendency,  viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  the  centuries,  was 

toward  a  wider  territorial  empire  and  an  ever  greater  population.  The 
empire  was  never  larger  nor  its  population  more  numerous  than  under  the 
last  dynasty,  the  Manchus. 


[6] 


F.  Intercourse  with  Europeans. 

1.  This  began  in  a  very  limited  way  in  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries. 

(Marco  Polo  and  Catholic  missionaries.) 

2.  It  was  resumed  on  a  larger  scale  by  the  sea  route  in  the  sixteenth  century. 

3.  It  did  not  concern  China  greatly  until  nearly  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth 

century,  when  by  the  first  and  second  wars  with  Great  Britain  (1840- 
1842  and  1856-1860)  and  other  events,  numbers  of  ports  were  opened 
to  Europeans  and  Americans  for  residence  and  commerce,  and  diplo¬ 
matic  intercourse  was  begun. 

4.  Marked  changes  began  after  the  war  with  Japan  in  1894  and  1895,  but 

China  did  not  thoroughly  commit  herself  to  Westernization  until  after 
the  Boxer  uprising  of  1900.  From  that  time  on  the  process  has  been 
almost  steadily  accelerated.  Her  contacts  have  been  through  mission¬ 
aries,  diplomats,  merchants,  travellers,  and  students  who  have  attended 
European,  American,  and  Japanese  institutions  of  learning.  Her  life 
has  been  largely  made  over. 

5.  China  has  sacrificed  much  of  her  independence  to  foreign  powers. 

(a)  Exterritoriality. 

(b)  Treaty  ports. 

(c)  Control  of  the  maritime  customs  by  foreigners  in  the  employment  of 

the  Chinese  government. 

(d)  Spheres  of  influence.  Russia  in  Northern  Manchuria,  Japan  in 

Southern  Manchuria  (as  the  result  of  the  Russo-Japanese  War, 
1904-1905),  Germany  in  Shantung,  Great  Britain  in  the  Yangtze, 
and  France  in  the  south  and  southwest. 

(e)  Leased  territories. 

(f)  Railways  controlled  by  foreign  capitalists. 

(g)  Foreign  troops  guarding  the  legations  in  Peking. 

(h)  The  United  States,  by  the  open  door  policy  in  1898,  attempted  to 

preserve  China’s  independence. 

Readings: 

F.  L.  H.  Pott,  A  Sketch  of  Chinese  History ,  third  edition.  Shanghai,  1915. 
A  brief  history,  giving  names  and  most  of  the  important  details  but 
sometimes  lacking  in  perspective. 

K.  S.  Latourette,  The  Development  of  China ,  Chaps.  II,  III,  V  and  VI. 

H.  A.  Giles,  The  Civilization  of  China ,  Henry  Holt  and  Company,  1911, 
Chaps.  I,  IV,  IX  and  X.  A  brief  account  by  a  well-known  scholar. 

S.  W.  Williams,  Middle  Kingdom ,  Vol.  II,  Chaps.  XVII,  XIX,  XXI,  XXII, 
XXIII,  XXV,  XXVI. 

E.  A.  Ross,  The  Changing  Chinese,  The  Century  Company,  1912.  A 
graphic  description  by  a  trained  observer. 


I  7  1 


Ill 


SOME  OUTSTANDING  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  CHINESE 

CIVILIZATION  IN  1911 


A.  Political  features. 

1.  Much  local  self-government  through  village  elders,  clans  and  the  like. 

2.  An  hereditary,  absolute  monarchy,  governing  the  country  by  means  of  a 

bureaucracy  recruited  through  civil  service  examinations. 

(a)  The  civil  service  examinations  were  based  upon  a  knowledge  of  the 

classics. 

(b)  In  1911  the  monarchy  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Manchus  but  most  of 

the  officials  were  Chinese. 

3.  The  government  was  fairly  adequate  for  the  needs  of  the  nation  before  the 

advent  of  the  Westerners,  but  it  was  incapable  of  resisting  the  efficient 
governments  of  the  Occident,  backed  as  these  were  by  modern  military 
organization  and  methods. 

B.  Economic  features. 

1.  The  country  supported  a  teeming  population,  and  there  were  many  large 

cities,  indicating  a  diversified  and  fairly  complex  industrial  and  com¬ 
mercial  organization. 

2.  Industry  and  commerce  were  organized  on  the  guild  and  partnership  basis. 

There  was  but  little  labor-saving  machinery  and  man  power  was  used 
lavishly. 

3.  Agriculture  was  fairly  efficient. 

4.  Taxes  were  paid  largely  in  kind;  currency  and  banking  were  not  as  highly 

developed  as  in  the  Occident;  and  money  was  coined,  although  in  small 
denominations. 

C.  Intellectual  and  educational  features. 

1.  There  were  many  dialects  of  the  spoken  language,  but  those  in  the  north 

and  in  most  of  the  Yangtze  valley  were  mutually  intelligible. 

2.  The  written  language  differed  much  from  the  vernacular.  It  was  made 

up  of  several  thousand  characters  and  there  was  no  alphabet. 

3.  There  was  a  rich  and  extensive  literature. 

4.  Learning  was  held  in  the  highest  esteem,  and  was  largely  dominated  by 

men  who  were  either  officials  or  were  hoping  to  be  officials. 

5.  Education  was  left  to  private  enterprise,  the  state  contenting  itself  with 

holding  civil  service  examinations. 

D.  Religions. 

1.  Animism,  very  widespread. 

2.  Buddhism,  imported  from  India  and  very  influential. 

3.  Taoism,  a  faith  of  Chinese  origin,  and  given  over  largely  to  the  exorcism 

of  demons. 


[8] 


4.  Confucianism.  An  ethical  system  rather  than  a  religion,  and  largely 

agnostic  on  questions  concerning  the  divine.  It  was  fostered  largely 
by  the  learned  and  its  moral  precepts  were  standard  for  the  entire 
people. 

5.  Mohammedanism.  This  had  only  a  few  million  adherents  and  these  were 

largely  of  foreign  descent. 

6.  Christianity.  This  did  not  obtain  a  permanent  foothold  in  China  until 

the  seventeenth  century  and  while  it  had  a  rapid  growth  in  the  late 
nineteenth  and  twentieth  centuries, — after  the  country  was  opened  to 
the  Occident, — its  adherents  in  1911  numbered  less  than  one  per  cent,  of 
the  population. 

E.  Social  characteristics. 

1.  Emphasis  upon  the  family  and  upon  the  duty  of  having  male  heirs,  reen¬ 

forced  by  ancestor  worship. 

2.  Status  of  women  higher  than  in  India  but  lower  than  in  America. 

3.  Early  marriage  the  rule  and  concubinage  practiced  by  those  who  could 

afford  it. 

F.  Changes  in  all  phases  of  civilization  had  been  effected  by  contact  with  the 

Occident. 

Readings: 

K.  S.  Latourette,  The  Development  of  China ,  Chap.  IV. 

H.  A.  Giles,  The  Civilization  of  China ,  Chaps  II,  III,  V,  VI,  VII,  VIII. 

W.  E.  Soothill,  The  Three  Religions  of  China ,  Hodder  and  Stoughton,  1913. 

One  of  the  best  brief  accounts  of  the  subject. 

Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  article  China,  pp.  2 13-231. 

James  W.  Bashford,  China ,  an  Interpretation ,  The  Abingdon  Press,  1916. 
Chaps.  2-12. 

S.  W.  Williams,  Middle  Kingdom,  Vol.  I,  Chaps.  VII-XIV;  Vol.  II,  Chaps. 
XV,  XVI  and  XX. 

F.  H.  King,  Farmers  of  Forty  Centuries,  Madison,  Wis.,  1911.  An  excellent 
description  of  agriculture  in  the  Far  East  by  a  trained  observer. 

A.  H.  Smith,  Chinese  Characteristics,  F.  H.  Revell  Co.,  1894.  Not  very 
complimentary  to  the  Chinese. 

E.  H.  Parker,  China. 


IV 

THE  CAUSES  OF  THE  REVOLUTION  OF  1911 

A.  The  weakness  of  the  Manchu  Dynasty.  Its  vigor  was  declining  and  it  would 
probably  have  disappeared  before  long  in  the  natural  course  of  events. 
The  death  of  Empress  Dowager,  November  15,  1908,  removed  the  last 
really  able  member  of  the  house. 

[9] 


B.  The  inefficiency  of  the  old  governmental  system. 

C.  The  disorder  caused  by  the  inroads  of  foreign  ideas  and  customs  and  the 

aggressions  of  foreign  powers. 

i.  There  was  an  insistent  demand  for  the  grant  of  parliamentary  institutions 
to  which  the  Manchus  did  not  accede  rapidly  enough  to  suit  many. 
Provincial  assemblies  met  in  1909  and  a  National  Parliament  was 
promised  for  1913,  but  this  did  not  satisfy  the  country. 

D.  The  agitation  of  radical  revolutionists ,  among  the  chief  of  whom  was  Sun 

Yat  Sen. 

E.  The  agitation  against  the  nationalization  cf  the  railways  in  iqii  was  the 

occasion  which  permitted  the  unrest  to  come  to  a  head. 

Readings: 

F.  L.  H.  Pott,  A  Sketch  of  Chinese  History,  Chap.  XXVII. 

B.  L.  Putnam  Weale,  The  Fight  for  the  Republic  in  China,  Dodd,  Mead,  and 
Company,  N.  Y.,  1917.  Chap  I. 

S.  K.  Hornbeck,  Contemporary  Politics  in  the  Far  East,  D.  Appleton  and 
Co.  1916,  pp.  1-13. 


V 

THE  REVOLUTION,  OCTOBER,  1911,  TO  FEBRUARY,  1912 

A.  Outbreak  at  Wuchang,  October  10,  1911. 

B.  The  revolt  quickly  spread  to  many  of  the  provinces,  especially  in  the  south. 

C.  Yuan  Shih  Kai  was  appointed  by  the  Manchus  to  quell  the  revolt,  and  some 

fighting  followed  in  and  around  Hankow. 

1.  Previous  history  of  Yuan  Shih  Kai. 

(a)  Born  in  North  Central  China  and  early  went  into  military  life. 

(b)  Became  a  protege  of  Li  Hung  Chang. 

(c)  Represented  China  in  Korea  in  the  eighties  and  nineties,  and  there 

combatted  Japanese  influence. 

(d)  Organized  troops  on  modern  lines  in  North  China  after  1895. 

(e)  Aided  in  the  coup  d'etat  of  1898  which  restored  the  Empress  Dowager 

to  power. 

(f)  Governor  of  Shantung,  1899-1901,  and  opposed  the  Boxer  madness. 

(g)  Viceroy  of  Chihli  (the  metropolitan  province),  1901. 

(h)  In  1909,  after  death  of  Empress  Dowager,  was  retired  to  his  estates  in 

Honan. 

(i)  Recalled  to  assume  direction  of  the  defense  of  the  dynasty,  October. 

191 1. 

(k)  His  attitude  toward  Westernization  was  moderately  progressive. 

2.  Except  around  Hankow  and  in  Sianfu  there  was  but  little  fighting. 

3.  Around  Hankow  (in  Hanyang)  the  Imperialists  were  relatively  successful. 

[  10] 


D.  In  December ,  1911,  a  provisional  republican  government  was  established  by 

the  revolutionaries  at  Nanking ,  with  Sun  Yat  Sen  as  President. 

Sun  Yat  Sen  had  long  been  a  revolutionist  and  as  an  exile  had  for  some 
years  past  been  carrying  on  agitation  among  Chinese  in  foreign  lands. 

E.  February  12,  1912 ,  the  Manchu  boy  emperor,  upon  the  advice  of  Yuan  Shih 

Kai,  abdicated.  He  became  a  pensionary  of  the  Republic  and  retained  his 
title,  but  not  his  power. 

F.  February,  1912,  Sun  Yat  Sen  resigned  as  Provisional  President  and  Yuan 

Shih  Kai  was  elected  ( February  5)  as  Provisional  President  in  his  place. 

G.  The  Provisional  Constitution  gave  more  power  to  the  Parliament  than  to  the 

President,  and  made  conflict  between  the  two  inevitable. 

Readings: 

F.  L.  H.  Pott,  A  Sketch  of  Chinese  History,  Chaps  XXVII  and  XXVIII. 

S.  K.  Hornbeck,  Contemporary  Politics  in  the  Far  East,  pp.  3-17,  39-40. 

J.  W.  Bashford,  China,  an  Interpretation,  pp.  492-499. 

B.  L.  P.  Weale,  The  Fight  for  the  Republic  in  China,  Chap.  II. 


Vf 

THE  REPUBLIC  UNDER  YUAN  SHIH  KAI  (FEBRUARY, 

1912 — JUNE,  1916) 

A.  Problems  before  the  Republic. 

1.  The  financing  of  the  Republic.  The  country  was  in  debt,  the  tax-collecting 

machinery  largely  needed  overhauling,  the  currency  required  organiz¬ 
ing,  and  troops  had  to  be  paid  off. 

2.  The  reduction  of  the  army  to  a  peace  footing  and  the  reassertion  of  civil 

authority  over  the  military.  Troops  had  been  recruited  by  both  sides 
during  the  Revolution.  They  were  frequently  lawless  and  poorly 
disciplined  and  their  leaders  might  at  any  time  become  a  menace  to  the 
country  as  semi-independent  chieftains.  Military  governors  frequently 
dominated  the  civil  administration  of  a  province. 

3.  The  establishment  of  a  permanent  form  of  government,  including  the 

drafting  of  a  permanent  constitution.  Closely  allied  with  this  was  the 
need  of  a  strong  central  government  to  handle  foreign  relations  and  to 
prevent  the  country  from  breaking  up  into  semi-independent  provinces. 

4.  The  preparation  of  the  nation  for  democratic  and  republican  institutions. 

(a)  Socially  the  nation  was  already  largely  a  democracy.  However, 

(b)  The  mass  of  the  people  were  illiterate  and  unfamiliar  with  the  ideas  of 

democratic  government  and  representative  institutions.  Pro¬ 
longed  and  extensive  education  was  necessary. 

(c)  Most  of  the  leadership  available  was  unpatriotic,  selfish,  and  accus¬ 

tomed  to  traditions  of  political  corruption. 

[n] 


5.  Readjustment  of  foreign  relations. 

(a)  China  must,  if  possible,  end  exterritoriality  and  such  other  forms  of 

foreign  control  as  territorial  leases  and  spheres  of  interest. 

(b)  Great  Britain  had  taken  advantage  of  the  Revolution  to  make  certain 

demands  in  Outer  Tibet  and  Russia  in  Outer  Mongolia.  These 
would  have  to  be  met. 

(c)  China  must  defend  herself  against  the  aggressions  of  any  other  power 

or  powers. 

B.  Attempt  at  financial  reorganization.  The  Five-Power  Loan  of  1913  and  the 

“Punitive  Expedition ”  (1913). 

1.  Yuan  Shih  Kai  negotiated  for  a  loan  with  a  Four-Power  Syndicate  (repre¬ 

sentative  financiers  of  Great  Britain,  the  United  States,  France,  and 
Germany)  which,  with  the  addition  of  Japanese  and  Russians,  became 
a  Six-Power  Syndicate. 

(a)  This  syndicate  wished  to  be  granted  the  exclusive  right  of  making 

loans  to  China. 

(b)  The  project  was  bitterly  opposed  by  many  Chinese  for  they  thought 

they  saw  in  the  project  the  further  sacrifice  of  the  nation’s  autonomy. 

(c)  Yuan  Shih  Kai,  late  1912,  managed  to  get  some  money  from  an  inde¬ 

pendent  source  (Mr.  Birch  Crisp,  a  London  stock  broker). 

(d)  Finally,  in  April,  1913,  Yuan  Shih  Kai,  without  the  authorization  of 

Parliament,  agreed  to  a  loan  for  $125,000,000  with  the  Syndicate. 

(1)  The  American  members  of  the  group  withdrew  at  the  last  minute 

because  President  Wilson  refused  to  promise  the  support  of  the 
government,  on  the  ground  that  the  terms  of  the  loan  infringed 
China’s  sovereignty. 

(2)  The  salt  revenue  was  pledged  to  pay  the  loan  and  foreign  super¬ 

vision  over  the  administration  of  this  revenue  was  provided  for. 

2.  Revolt  against  Yuan  Shih  Kai  followed  in  July  and  August,  1913.  This 

was  led  by  the  radical  group,  largely  Southern  in  its  composition,  and 
made  up  of  men  who  had  favored  the  Revolution  of  1911.  They  saw  in 
Yuan  Shih  Kai’s  growing  power  and  his  disregard  for  Parliament  a 
menace  to  republican  institutions.  The  Southerners  were  defeated. 

3.  The  net  result  was  to  place  Yuan  Shih  Kai  more  firmly  than  ever  in  control 

of  the  State.  The  Southerners,  who  wished  to  limit  the  power  of  the 
executive,  had  been  discredited  and  defeated,  and  Yuan  had  obtained 
the  money  which  he  needed  to  carry  on  his  government. 

C.  The  problem  of  subordinating  the  military  to  the  civil  authority  and  of  dis¬ 

banding  the  surplus  troops. 

In  handling  this  problem  Yuan  Shih  Kai  was  only  partially  successful.  During 
most  of  his  life  time  he  succeeded  in  keeping  the  larger  part  of  the  military 
leaders  subordinate  to  his  will  but  he  did  not  succeed  in  disbanding  many 
troops,  and  to  a  large  degree  he  represented  military  rule  under  the  guise  of 
civil  forms. 


D.  The  establishment  of  a  permanent  form  of  government  under  a  strong  central 
authority. 

[  12  ] 


1.  Both  were  greatly  needed. 

2.  The  Provisional  Constitution  of  March,  1912,  was  passed  by  the  Pro¬ 

visional  Assembly  at  Nanking. 

(a)  This  Assembly  was  controlled  by  the  Southern  group  which  had 

brought  about  the  Revolution. 

(b)  The  Constitution  greatly  limited  the  power  of  the  president  and 

put  much  power  into  the  hands  of  the  Assembly. 

3.  A  new  National  Assembly  was  elected  in  the  winter  of  1912-1913,  and 

met  in  Peking  in  April,  1913. 

(a)  In  this  assembly  the  dominant  party  was  the  Kwo  Ming  Tang  which 

represented  the  Southern  group  and  favored  strong  local  govern¬ 
ment,  a  weak  executive,  and  a  very  democratic  and  even  socialistic 
form  of  government. 

(b)  The  Kwo  Ming  Tang  opposed  the  signing  of  the  Five-Power  Loan  in 

1913  and  its  leaders  instigated  and  launched  the  rebellion  of  1913. 

4.  The  National  Assembly  appointed  a  committee  of  sixty  in  which  the  Kwo 

Ming  Tang  was  dominant,  to  draft  a  permanent  constitution.  This 
resented  any  interference  by  Yuan  Shih  Kai. 

5.  After  the  rebellion  of  1913  many  of  the  Kwo  Ming  Tang  leaders  left 

Peking. 

6.  In  October,  1913,  the  party  supporting  Yuan  pushed  through  the  Assem¬ 

bly  a  law  for  the  election  of  a  president  for  a  five-year  term. 

7.  October,  1913,  Yuan  Shih  Kai  was  elected  president  for  a  five-year  term 

and  Li  Yuan  Hung  was  elected  vice-president. 

8.  October  26,  1913,  the  Constitution  drafted  by  the  committee  of  the 

National  Assembly  was  submitted  to  the  Assembly.  This  document 
greatly  limited  the  power  of  the  president  and  lodged  supreme  power  in 
the  legislature. 

9.  Yuan  Shih  Kai,  backed  by  much  of  the  country,  objected  to  this  consti¬ 

tution  and  on  November  4,  1913,  dissolved  the  Kwo  Ming  Tang. 

10.  Yuan  Shih  Kai  called  in  December,  1913,  an  Administrative  Conference 

appointed  by  himself,  the  cabinet,  and  provincial  governors. 

11.  January  10,  1914,  Yuan  Shih  Kai  dissolved  the  National  Assembly  on 

the  advice  of  the  Administrative  Conference,  for  the  Assembly  had 
wasted  time  and  had  proved  to  be  obstructionist. 

12.  March  1,  1914,  Yuan  Shih  Kai  dissolved  the  provincial  and  local  self- 

governing  bodies  throughout  the  country. 

13.  Early  in  1914,  a  Constitutional  Compact  Conference  was  elected  (by  a 

limited  electorate)  at  the  suggestion  of  the  Administrative  Conference 
to  revise  the  Provisional  Constitution  of  1912  and  to  draft  supplemen¬ 
tary  laws.  This  met  in  March,  1914. 

14.  May  1,  1914,  the  result  of  the  work  of  this  Constitutional  Compact  Con¬ 

ference  was  promulgated. 

(a)  It  was  a  revision  of  the  Provisional  Constitution. 

(b)  It  greatly  enlarged  the  power  of  the  president  and  limited  that  of  the 

legislature. 

(c)  It  provided  for  a  Council  of  State  to  be  arranged  for  by  the  Con¬ 

stitutional  Compact  Conference. 

[  13  1 


(d)  The  permanent  constitution  was  to  be  drafted  by  a  committee  of  ten 
elected  by  the  Council  of  State  and  was  to  be  passed  upon  by  the 
latter  body  and  then  presented  for  adoption  to  a  national  con¬ 
vention. 

15.  The  Council  of  State  was  appointed  and  began  work  in  June,  1914. 

16.  December,  1914,  the  presidential  election  law  was  altered  by  the  Con¬ 

stitutional  Compact  Conference,  lengthening  the  term  to  ten  years  and 
giving  the  president  wide  powers  in  choosing  his  successor. 

17.  October,  1917,  the  Constitutional  Compact  Conference  prepared  a  law 

providing  for  a  one-house  legislature  under  the  revised  Provisional 
Constitution,  to  be  chosen  by  a  narrowly  limited  electorate. 

18.  The  Constitutional  Compact  Conference  prepared  a  law  for  the  election 

of  a  national  convention  and  this  law  was  promulgated  March  12,  1915. 

19.  July,  1915,  the  Committee  of  Ten  to  draft  a  permanent  constitution  was 

appointed  by  the  Council  of  State  and  met. 

20.  Constitutional  development  was  halted  by  the  movement  to  make  Yuan 

Shih  Kai  emperor. 

(a)  The  agitation  took  form  in  August,  1915. 

(b)  At  the  recommendation  of  the  Council  of  State  in  October,  1915,  a 

convention  was  called  to  consider  the  question  of  restoring  the 
empire. 

(c)  In  December,  1915,  a  vote  of  “electors”  who  were  supposed  to  be 

representative,  but  who  in  reality  were  largely  manipulated  by 
Yuan  Shih  Kai’s  supporters,  declared  for  a  restoration  of  the 
monarchy,  and  the  step  was  decided  upon. 

(d)  Opposition  quickly  developed  in  many  quarters,  especially  in  the 

South,  and  open  revolt  broke  out. 

(e)  March  22,  1916,  because  of  the  opposition,  Yuan  Shih  Kai  issued  a 

mandate  cancelling  the  monarchical  movement. 

(f)  The  South  continued  to  rise  in  revolt,  demanding  Yuan’s  retirement. 

(g)  June  6,  1916,  Yuan  Shih  Kai  died  and  the  presidency  passed  to  the 

vice-president,  Li  Yuan  Hung. 

E.  Preparation  of  the  people  for  democratic  institutions. 

1.  This  would  come  only  as  the  result  of  widespread  education  and  experi¬ 

ence  over  a  long  period  of  time. 

2.  Some  progress  was  made  in  a  growing  daily  press  and  in  an  expanded 

school  system,  both  public,  private,  and  missionary. 

3.  However,  the  mass  of  the  people  remained  illiterate.  There  was  so  much 

unrest  and  so  much  money  was  consumed  by  the  military  establishment 
and  by  corruption  that  funds  for  extensive  public  education  were  not 
available. 

F.  Foreign  affairs. 

1.  Problems  growing  out  of  the  Revolution. 

(a)  Status  of  Outer  Tibet,  subject  to  long  negotiations  with  Great  Britain. 

(b)  Status  of  Outer  Mongolia.  November,  1913,  a  Chino-Russian  agree¬ 

ment  was  signed  which  recognized  the  autonomy  of  Outer  Mongolia. 

[  14] 


China  was  still  acknowledged  as  suzerain  and  might  have  a  represen¬ 
tative  at  the  capital.  The  agreement  was  confirmed  in  June,  1915. 

(c)  Recognition  of  the  Republic  by  the  Powers.  This  was  done  by  most 
Powers  in  1913. 

2.  Problems  arising  out  of  the  Great  War. 

(a)  August  15,  1914,  Japan  demanded  that  Germany  turn  over  to  Japan 

the  leased  territory  of  Kiaochow  “with  a  view  to  the  eventual 
restoration  of  the  same  to  China.”  This  demand  of  Japan  was  in 
part  due  to  her  obligations  under  the  Anglo- Japanese  Alliance  (191 1), 

(b)  August  23,  1914,  Japan  declared  war  on  Germany. 

(c)  September,  1914,  Japan  invaded  Shantung,  aided  by  a  small  British 

force. 

(d)  November,  1914,  Kiaochow  was  surrendered  to  the  Japanese,  and  the 

Japanese  assumed  control  of  all  the  German  holdings  in  Shantung. 

(e)  The  Twenty-One  Demands  (in  five  groups)  of  Japan  on  China,  Jan¬ 

uary,  1915. 

(1)  In  regard  to  Shantung:  China  was  to  agree  to  whatever  Japan  and 

Germany  should  decide  about  the  disposition  of  Shantung;  she 
was  to  consent  to  Japan’s  building  another  railway;  and  she 
was  to  open  more  ports  in  Shantung. 

(2)  In  regard  to  Manchuria:  the  lease  on  Port  Arthur  and  the  rail¬ 

ways  in  that  region  was  to  be  extended  to  ninety-nine  years,  and 
Japan  was  to  be  granted  privileges  of  trade,  mining,  and  resi¬ 
dence,  extending  her  control  over  that  region. 

(3)  The  Han  Yeh  Ping  Company,  the  largest  iron  company  in  China, 

was  to  be  made  a  joint  concern  of  Chinese  and  Japanese. 

(4)  China  was  not  to  cede  or  lease  to  any  third  power  any  harbor  or 

bay  or  island  along  the  coast  of  China. 

(5)  A  series  of  demands  for  a  sphere  of  influence  in  Fukien,  for  the 

right  to  build  railways  in  the  Yangtze  Valley,  for  the  employ¬ 
ment  by  Chinese  of  Japanese  advisers  in  political,  military  and 
political  affairs,  for  the  admission  of  Japanese  to  the  joint 
administration  of  the  police  in  important  cities,  and  for  the 
permission  to  Japan  virtually  to  control  China’s  arsenals  and 
war  munitions.  This  group,  if  granted,  would  have  made 
China  virtually  a  protectorate  of  Japan. 

(f)  These  demands,  at  first  kept  secret,  leaked  out  and  aroused  great 

indignation  in  China. 

(g)  China  was  forced  in  May,  1915,  to  accept  most  of  the  first  four  groups, 

but  the  nation  felt  deeply  aggrieved. 

(h)  The  United  States  in  May,  1916,  declared  to  China  and  Japan  that 

she  could  not  recognize  any  agreement  between  the  two  which  would 
impair  the  treaty  rights  of  American  citizens  in  China  or  the  political 
or  territorial  integrity  of  China. 

Readings: 

S.  K.  Hornbeck,  Contemporary  Politics  in  the  Far  East,  Chaps.  XVI  and 
XVII. 


[15] 


B.  L.  P.  Weale,  The  Fight  for  the  Republic  in  China ,  Chaps.  Ill — XIII. 

K.  S.  Latourette,  The  Development  of  China ,  pp.  210-224. 

W.  R.  Wheeler,  China  and  the  World  War,  Macmillan,  1919.  Chaps.  I 
and  II. 

J.  W.  Bashford,  China,  an  Interpretation,  Chaps.  XV,  XVI  and  XIX. 

S.  G.  Cheng,  Modern  China,  a  Political  Study,  Oxford  University  Press, 
1919,  pp.  12-146,  235-290. 


VII 

FROM  THE  DEATH  OF  YUAN  SHIH  KAI,  JUNE,  1916,  TO 
THE  FORMAL  ENTRY  OF  CHINA  INTO  THE 
WORLD  WAR,  AUGUST  14,  1917 

A.  The  previous  history  and  character  of  the  new  president ,  Li  Yuan  Hung. 

1.  Trained  on  modern  lines,  primarily  as  a  military  man. 

2.  First  prominent  as  a  revolutionary  leader  at  Wuchang. 

3.  Progressive,  honest,  and  well-meaning,  but  lacking  a  certain  firmness  of 

will  in  emergencies. 

4.  On  the  whole  he  was  accepted  by  the  mass  of  the  nation  and  the  party 

leaders,  although  grudgingly  by  some  of  the  latter. 

B.  The  government  under  Li  Yuan  Hung. 

1.  The  reassembling  in  August,  1916,  of  ‘  the  Parliament  of  1913,  which 

Yuan  Shih  Kai  had  first  hampered  by  dissolving  the  Kwo  Ming  Tang 
and  had  then  dismissed,  and  the  restoration  of  the  Nanking  Constitu¬ 
tion  of  1912. 

2.  The  election  of  Feng  Kwo  Chang,  a  military  leader  of  the  more  conserva¬ 

tive  school  of  Yuan  Shih  Kai,  as  vice-president.  (October  30,  1916. 
General  Tuan  Chi  Jui,  Premier.) 

3.  Continued  strain  between  the  conservative,  military  group  which  was 

strong  in  the  cabinet,  and  the  democratically  minded  groups,  largely 
from  the  South,  which  were  strong  in  Parliament. 

4.  In  spite  of  this  strain  Parliament  proceeded  to  the  drafting  of  a  permanent 

constitution  and  was  making  good  headway.  China  might  have  pre¬ 
served  her  unity  and  have  continued  to  progress  peacefully  had  it  not 
been  for  developments  arising  out  of  the  World  War. 

C.  Foreign  affairs  and  the  disruption  of  China  which  they  brought  about. 

1.  July,  1916,  Japan  and  Russia  agreed  to  defend  China  against  the  aggression 

of  any  other  power. 

2.  The  Chengchiatun  incident,  August,  1916,  and  the  subsequent  negotia¬ 

tions,  an  instance  of  continued  friction  between  the  Japanese  and 
Chinese  in  Manchuria  and  Eastern  Mongolia  and  probably  of  Japanese 
aggression.  The  incident  was,  on  the  whole,  settled  to  the  satisfaction 
of  China. 

[16] 


3.  February,  1917,  Great  Britain,  France,  Russia,  and  Italy  secretly  but 

formally  agreed  with  Japan  to  support  at  the  Peace  Conference  the 
latter’s  claims  to  the  former  German  holdings  in  Shantung.  The 
existence  of  these  agreements  was  not  generally  known  until  1919. 

4.  China  broke  off  diplomatic  relations  with  Germany,  March  14,  1917. 

(a)  Reasons  which  tended  to  prevent  China’s  siding  with  the  Entente: 

(1)  The  aggressions  of  Japan,  especially  the  occupation  of  Kiaochow, 

the  Twenty-One  Demands  and  the  Chengchiatun  incident. 

(2)  German  propaganda. 

(3)  French  aggressions  in  Tientsin  in  1916. 

(b)  Reasons  which  induced  China  to  break  with  Germany. 

(1)  Sympathy  of  many  of  the  younger,  more  progressive  Chinese 

leaders  with  the  avowed  aims  of  the  Entente,  especially  the  pro¬ 
tection  for  weak  nations  and  opposition  to  German  aims  and 
methods,  including  submarine  warfare. 

(2)  Hope  of  getting  concessions  from  the  Entente. 

(3)  American  example  and  diplomatic  pressure. 

(4)  Friendship  for  and  confidence  in  America.  These  were  due  to 

America’s  leadership  in  the  open  door  policy,  1899,  her  friend¬ 
ship  for  China  in  1900  and  1901,  her  opposition  to  Russian 
aggressions  between  1900  and  1904,  her  endeavor  to  neutralize 
the  Manchurian  railways  in  1909,  her  lack  of  territorial  ambitions 
in  China,  her  return  of  part  of  the  Boxer  indemnity,  the  many 
Chinese  who  had  studied  in  the  United  States,  and  the  unselfish 
work  of  American  missionaries  in  China. 

(c)  China  answered  favorably  Wilson’s  peace  inquiry  of  December  19, 

1916. 

(d)  When  in  February,  1917,  the  United  States  severed  diplomatic  rela¬ 

tions  with  Germany  she  invited  (February  4)  other  neutrals  to  do 
likewise. 

(e)  China  sent  to  Germany,  February  9,  1917,  a  note  of  protest  against  the 

unrestricted  submarine  warfare. 

(f)  Germany’s  answer  having  proved  unsatisfactory,  on  March  14  diplo¬ 

matic  relations  were  severed  by  China. 

5.  The  struggle  over  the  question  whether  China  should  follow  the  severance 

of  diplomatic  relations  by  declaring  war. 

(a)  The  general  sentiment  of  the  country  was  in  favor  of  entering  the  war. 

(b)  The  reasons  which  led  to  this  were: 

(1)  The  various  reasons  which  had  led  China  to  break  with  Germany. 

(2)  The  hope  of  getting  a  seat  at  the  Peace  Conference  and  so  of  getting 

a  voice  in  the  disposition  of  the  Shantung  properties  and  other 
questions  vital  to  China. 

(3)  The  hope  of  being  permitted  by  the  Entente  to  revise  the  customs 

rates,  to  postpone  payments  on  the  Boxer  indemnity,  and  in 
other  ways  to  relax  foreign  control  and  to  regain  sovereign  rights. 

(c)  April  25,  a  conference  of  military  governors  met  at  the  instance  of 

Tuan  Chi  Jui,  the  Premier,  and  supported  a  declaration  of  war. 

[17] 


(d)  May  7,  the  President  recommended  to  Parliament  that  war  be  declared. 

Parliament  hesitated,  fearing  Japanese  intrigues  and  distrusting  the 
Cabinet,  because  the  latter  was  dominated  by  the  military  party. 
This  hesitation  was  accentuated  by  the  attempt  of  the  Premier  and 
of  a  Peking  mob  to  coerce  Parliament. 

(e)  May  19,  Parliament  decided  that  a  majority  of  its  number  were  in 

favor  of  war  but  refused  to  declare  war  until  the  Cabinet  should  be 
reorganized. 

(f)  May  23,  President  Li  Yuan  Hung  dismissed  Tuan  Chi  Jui.  The  rest 

of  the  Cabinet  had  previously  resigned. 

(g)  Most  of  the  northern  provinces,  led  by  the  northern  military  chiefs, 

declared  their  independence  because  of  the  dismissal  of  Tuan  Chi 
Jui,  and  a  conference  of  the  generals  met  in  Tientsin.  The  issue 
was  squarely  joined  whether  Parliament,  led  by  the  southern  demo¬ 
cratic  group,  should  control  the  government,  or  the  northern,  mili¬ 
tary,  conservative  group. 

(h)  June  5,  the  United  States  formally  advised  China  to  resume  her 

political  unity.  This  note  aroused  resentment  in  Japan  because 
Tokyo  had  not  first  been  consulted. 

(i)  June  9,  the  military  chiefs  at  Tientsin  sent  an  ultimatum  to  the 

President  threatening  war  if  Parliament  were  not  dissolved. 

(j)  June  12,  President  Li  Yuan  Hung  yielded  and  dissolved  Parliament, 

violating  the  Constitution  in  so  doing. 

(k)  The  members  of  Parliament  fled  from  Peking. 

(l)  The  northern  provinces  withdrew  their  declarations  of  independence. 

(m)  June  15,  Chang  Hsun,  an  old-style  military  chief,  arrived  in  Peking 

with  his  troops. 

(n)  July  1,  Chang  Hsun  declared  the  Manchus  restored.  Li  Yuang  Hung, 

at  first  held  prisoner,  was  taken  by  Japanese  troops  to  the 
Japanese  legation. 

(o)  The  major  part  of  the  country,  including  most  of  the  military  group.. 

opposed  the  restoration,  and  Republican  troops  marched  on  Peking. 

(p)  After  some  fighting,  Chang  Hsun  (July  12)  took  refuge  in  the  Dutch 

Legation  and  the  restored  empire  collapsed. 

(q)  Tuan  Chi  Jui  reentered  Peking  July  14  and  July  .15  to  become 

Premier. 

(r)  July  17,  Li  Yuan  Hung  refused  to  resume  office  and  the  Vice- 

President,  Feng  Kwo  Chang,  became  President. 

(s)  The  former  members  of  Parliament,  largely  Southerners,  were  dis¬ 

satisfied  with  Tuan  Chi  Jui  and  war  between  the  North  and  South 
was  certain. 

(t)  August  14,  1917,  the  Peking  government,  now  under  the  control  of  the 

northern  military  group,  declared  war  on  Germany. 

Readings: 

W.  R.  Wheeler,  China  and  the  World  War,  Chaps.  Ill,  V. 

B.  L.  P.  Weale,  The  Fight  for  the  Republic  in  China,  Chaps.  XIV-XVI. 

[18] 


K.  S.  Latourette,  China,  the  United  States  and  the  War,  World  Peace 
Foundation,  July,  1919. 

H.  M.  Vinacke,  Modern  Constitutional  Development  in  China,  Princeton 
University  Press,  1920,  Chaps.  IX  and  X. 

T.  F.  Millard,  Democracy  and  the  Eastern  Question,  The  Century  Company, 
1919,  Chaps.  Ill— VI. 


VIII 

FROM  CHINA’S  ENTRY  INTO  THE  WAR,  AUGUST  14, 
1917,  TO  THE  ARMISTICE,  NOVEMBER  n,  1918 

A.  Continued  civil  war  in  China. 

1.  The  struggle,  nominally  between  the  northern  conservatives  and  the 

members  of  the  former  Parliament,  largely  Southerners,  between  mili¬ 
tarism  and  democracy,  ultimately  degenerated  into  a  strife  between 
rival  military  leaders.  The  Parliamentary  leaders  claimed  to  be  the 
constitutional  government  and  maintained  themselves  at  Canton. 

2.  The  country  tended  to  break  up  into  warring  groups  and  provinces. 

3.  The  failure  of  attempts  at  reconciliation  through  peace  conferences  between 

the  North  and  the  South  at  Shanghai. 

B.  The  Pehing  government. 

1.  Remained  the  one  recognized  by  the  Powers. 

2.  It  was  in  the  hands  of  the  northern  military  group. 

3.  The  northern  (Peiyang)  party  was  divided  between: 

(a)  The  Chihli  faction,  controlled  by  Feng  Kwo  Chang. 

(b)  The  Anhui  faction,  controlled  by  Tuan  Chi  Jui. 

(c)  Factional  contests  followed  between  these. 

4.  General  Chang  Tso  Ling,  in  control  of  the  Manchurian  provinces,  became 

an  important  figure. 

In  the  autumn  of  1917,  Tuan  Chi  Jui  called  an  assembly  to  frame  a  law 
for  the  election  of  a  new  Parliament.  The  law  was  promulgated  Feb¬ 
ruary  17,  1918,  and  a  Parliament  was  elected. 

5.  September  4,  1918,  Hsu  Shih  Ch’ang,  a  conservative  militarist  of  the 

northern  group,  was  elected  president. 

C.  China's  part  in  the  war. 

1.  She  could  not  help  in  military  operations  with  the  exception  of  aiding  in 

guarding  the  northern  frontier  against  the  Bolsheviki  and  Siberian 
unrest  and  in  cooperating  with  the  allied  force  in  Siberia. 

2.  A  War  Participation  Board  was  formed  with  Tuan  Chi  Jui  at  the  head, 

but  this  did  little. 

3.  China  allowed  the  Allies  to  take  to  France  about  175,000  laborers  for  work 

behind  the  lines. 

4.  Some  ship-building  was  undertaken  for  the  Allies. 

5.  Some  food  stuffs  for  the  Allies  were  purchased  in  China. 

6.  In  spite  of  these  activities,  on  October  29,  1918,  the  Allies  protested  that 

China  was  not  properly  conducting  herself  in  the  war. 

[  19] 


D.  Japan  tightened  her  hold  on  China. 

1.  The  Lansing- Ishii  agreement,  November  2,  1917,  between  the  United 

States  and  Japan,  seemed  to  many  Chinese  to  be  the  abandonment  of 
China  to  Japan. 

(a)  By  it  Japan,  while  reaffirming  the  “open  door”  and  the  independence  and 

territorial  integrity  of  China,  was  acknowledged  by  the  United 
States  to  have  “special  interests”  in  China,  because  of  “territorial 
propinquity.”  The  importance  of  the  agreement  depended  in  part 
upon  the  interpretation  placed  upon  the  phrase  “special  interests.” 

(b)  China  notified  the  two  powers  that  it  “could  not  allow  itself  to  be 

bound  by  any  agreement  entered  into  by  other  nations.” 

2.  Chino-Japanese  military  and  naval  agreements,  May  1,  1918. 

(a)  Shrouded  in  secrecy  and  first  heard  of  in  the  spring  of  1917. 

(b)  So  far  as  published,  the  agreements  proved  to  be  simply  for  coopera¬ 

tion  in  defense  against  the  enemy,  especially  against  the  menace  of 
unrest  in  Siberia. 

3.  Japanese  loans  were  made  to  China  amounting  to  many  millions  of  yen 

on  the  security  of  revenues,  valuable  natural  resources,  and  railway 
concessions  in  Manchuria  and  Shantung. 

4.  Japan  and  China  arranged  a  modus  vivendi  in  Shantung,  which  gave 

certain  advantages  to  China,  September,  1918. 

E.  Other  foreign  relations. 

1.  The  powers  permitted  the  postponement  of  payments  on  the  Boxer  in¬ 

demnity. 

2.  They  negotiated  for  the  increase  of  China’s  customs  revenue. 

Readings: 

T.  F.  Millard,  Democracy  and  the  Eastern  Question ,  Chaps.  VII,  XII  and 
XIII. 

W.  R.  Wheeler,  China  and  the  World  War,  Chaps.  VI  and  VII,  and  appen¬ 
dix  III. 

B.  L.  P.  Weale,  The  Truth  About  China  and  Japan ,  Dodd,  Mead,  and 
Company,  1919,  Appendices  A-F,  I,  J,  and  L. 

K.  S.  Latourette,  The  Development  of  China,  pp.  233-235. 

K.  S.  Latourette,  China,  the  United  States  and  the  War. 

S.  C.  Cheng,  Modern  China,  pp.  208-298,  and  appendices  2,  4,  5,  and  8. 

H.  M.  Vinacke,  Modern  Constitutional  Development  in  China,  pp.  254-262. 

IX 

FROM  THE  ARMISTICE,  NOVEMBER  11,  1918,  TO  THE 

PRESENT  TIME  (MARCH,  1921) 

A.  China  at  the  Peace  Conference. 

1.  Both  North  and  South  were  represented  on  the  delegation  and  very  ably. 

2.  China  asked  not  only  for  the  restoration  to  her  of  the  former  German 

holdings  in  Shantung,  but  also  for  the  cancellation  of  the  Sino-Japanese 
agreements  of  1915. 


[20] 


3.  China  won  none  of  her  contentions  but  the  German  properties  in  Shantung 

were  awarded  Japan  with  only  a  vague  promise  to  restore  them  to  China. 
China  and  Japan  had  had  a  previous  exchange  of  notes  (1915)  on  the 
terms  on  which  Japan  would  restore  Kiao  Chow  to  China. 

4.  The  Chinese  delegates  refused  to  sign  the  German  treaty  which  contained 

the  objectionable  clauses,  but  obtained  China’s  admission  to  the  League 
of  Nations  by  signing  the  Austrian  Treaty. 

5.  This  award,  together  with  her  holdings,  left  Japan  dominant  in  North 

China  and  in  the  country  as  a  whole. 

B.  The  effect  of  the  award  upon  China  was  a  nation-wide  outcry  against  the 

Japanese. 

1.  This  showed  itself  in  a  boycott  against  the  Japanese  which  was  led  by 

students  and  which  broke  out  at  first  against  some  officials  who  were 
supposed  to  have  sold  out  to  the  Japanese. 

2.  The  boycott  worked  injury  to  Japanese  trade  and  continued  to  be  fairly 

effective  for  at  least  a  year. 

3.  The  boycott  was  an  evidence  of  a  rising  national  feeling  led  by  the  student 

class. 

C.  January  19,  1920 ,  Japan  offered  to  open  negotiations  for  the  restoration  of  the 

Shantung  properties  hut  there  was  widespread  national  protest  against  such 
a  move  and  China  did  not  enter  upon  them. 

D.  Late  in  1920,  China  obtained  election  to  the  Council  of  the  League  of  Nations. 

E.  In  the  latter  part  of  1920,  feeling  against  Japan  was  accentuated  by  the 

latter's  high-handed  treatment  of  Koreans  in  Chientao,  a  district  of  Manchuria 
which  adjoins  Korea. 

F.  In  1919,  there  was  formed  under  American  leadership  an  International 

Financial  Consortium. 

1.  The  beginning  of  this  went  back  to  the  summer  of  1918. 

2.  The  purpose  was  to  assume  international  control  of  all  future  loans 

to  China,  especially  for  railway,  mining  and  industrial  development, 
and  thus  to  prevent  international  rivalry. 

3.  Japan  for  a  time  refused  to  enter  unless  Manchuria  and  Eastern  Inner 

Mongolia  were  excepted  from  the  territory  covered  by  the  Consortium. 

4.  To  this  demand  the  Consortium  refused  to  yield  and,  in  1920,  an  arrange¬ 

ment  was  made  whereby  Japan  came  in  and  was  given  some  special  con¬ 
sideration  in  Manchuria. 

5.  In  1920  and  1921  there  developed  some  Chinese  opposition  to  the  Con¬ 

sortium  on  the  ground  that  it  interfered  with  China’s  independence. 

G.  China  in  August ,  1920,  refused  to  recognize  as  official  the  representatives  of 

the  old  regime  of  Russia,  who  were  living  in  China,  or  to  pay  over  to  them 
and  the  Russo- Asiatic  bank  the  installments  of  the  Boxer  uidemnity. 

H.  Arrangements  arising  out  of  the  Siberian  situation. 

[21  ] 


1.  October  1919,  Chinese  gunboats  on  the  Amur  were  fired  on  by  Siberian 

soldiers. 

2.  1919,  autonomy  of  Outer  Mongolia  was  cancelled,  Russian  control  over  it 

ceased,  and  Hsu  Shu  Cheng  and  then  Chang  Tso  Ling  tried  to  control  it. 
Urga,  the  capital,  was  captured  by  a  Russian  independent  general  in  1920. 

3.  China  exercised  supervision  over  the  Chinese  Eastern  Railway  (in  North¬ 

ern  Manchuria). 

I.  Internal  politics. 

1.  Continued  civil  war  amounted  to  anarchy  in  places  and  the  country 

progressively  disintegrated  into  districts  controlled  by  military  chief¬ 
tains  who  were  virtually  independent  of  Peking,  and  who  at  times  levied 
toll  on  merchants  and  other  civilians. 

(a)  A  presidential  mandate  of  October  30,  1920,  declared  the  inde¬ 
pendence  of  the  six  seceding  Southern  provinces  cancelled  and  ordered 
the  choice  of  a  new  parliament  under  the  terms  of  the  Provisional  Con¬ 
stitution  of  1912. 

(b)  The  South  paid  no  attention  to  the  order  and,  by  the  early  part  of  1921, 
the  Kwo  Ming  Tang  was  in  control  in  Canton,  engineered  in  part  by 
Sun  Yat  Sen. 

2.  In  some  provinces,  notably  under  Governor  Yen  in  Shansi,  order  was 

maintained. 

3.  Dissension  among  the  military  leaders  in  Peking  in  the  spring  and  summer 

of  1920  led  to  the  ousting  by  force  from  positions  of  influence  of  the 
members  of  the  pro-Japanese  Anfu  Club. 

(a)  Tuan  Chi  Jui  and  Hsu  Shu  Cheng  (“little”  Hsu)  led  the  Anfu  Club, 

and  by  its  fall  were  discredited.  They  belonged  to  the  Anhui  fac¬ 
tion  of  the  Peiyang,  or  northern  military  party. 

(b)  Generals  Tsao  Kun  and  Wu  Pei  Fu,  of  the  Chihli  faction  of  the  Peiyang 

party,  led  in  ousting  the  Anfu  Club. 

(c)  August  4,  1920,  a  presidential  mandate  dissolved  the  Anfu  Club. 

4.  Chang  Tso  Ling,  the  Inspecting  Commissioner  of  Manchuria  and  military 

governor  of  Fengtien  (in  Manchuria),  was  the  dominant  military  figure  in 
North  China. 

J.  The  Famine  of  1920- 1921  in  the  North. 

1.  The  most  severe  in  many  decades  and  threatened  further  disintegration 

in  the  North. 

2.  Extensive  foreign  effort  to  relieve  it. 

Readings: 

K.  S.  Latourette,  The  Development  of  China ,  pp.  236-238. 

R.  Machray,  The  Crisis  in  China ,  The  Fortnightly  Review,  January,  1921. 
J.  Dewey  in  The  New  Republic,  23:  145-7;  2I:  1 4— 1 7 ;  25:  187-190524: 

142-144;  21:  380-382;  19:  346-348;  20:  16-18. 

Current  History  Magazine,  12:  463-464;  12:  638-640;  13:  47-48,  Jan¬ 
uary  1920; 13:  287-289;  10:  534-538. 

See  also  the  files  of  Millard's  Review,  the  Far  Eastern  Review,  and  Asia. 

[22] 


v 


X 


ADDITIONAL  FEATURES  OF  CHINESE  LIFE,  1911-1921 

A.  Growth  of  education. 

1.  Government  and  private  schools. 

2.  Missionary  schools. 

3.  Thousands  of  students  in  Japan,  America,  and  Europe.  The  largest 

numbers  were  in  Japan,  America,  and  France.  A  strong  movement  to 
the  latter  country  began  after  the  war. 

4.  The  education  was  on  Occidental  lines  and  was  much  of  it  technical. 

5.  A  phonetic  script  was  developed  as  a  means  of  writing  the  vernacular  and 

so  of  increasing  literacy  and  intelligence  among  the  masses. 

6.  The  vernacular  was  mere  and  more  used  in  text-books  in  the  schools. 

B.  Growth  of  newspapers. 

1.  In  numbers. 

2.  An  easy,  colloquial  style  was  developed,  in  contrast  with  the  older  and 

more  difficult  classical  style. 

C.  Trade. 

1.  Increased  greatly  during  the  war.  Americans  and  Japanese  especially 

prospered. 

2.  Depression  after  the  war,  especially  in  1920  and  1921. 

D.  Growth  in  factories,  especially  in  cotton  mills  in  Shanghai  and  Tientsin. 

E.  Revival  of  the  drug  traffic. 

1.  Some  revival  of  opium  growing. 

2.  Large  importations  of  the  derivatives  of  opium  from  Great  Britain  and 

America  by  way  of  Japan. 

F.  Rapid  growth  of  the  Christian  Church. 

1.  In  numbers. 

2.  In  willingness  to  assume  initiative  apart  from  foreigners. 

3.  In  quality  of  members  and  leadership. 

G.  Increase  of  the  national  spirit  in  spite  of  governmental  corruption,  political 

division ,  and  military  domination. 

H.  An  increasing  tendency,  especially  on  the  part  of  students,  to  criticize  existing 

institutions,  ideas  and  methods,  and  to  follow  some  of  the  more  liberal  and 
racical  writers  of  the  West. 

Readings: 

W.  R.  Wheeler,  China  and  the  World  War,  Chap.  8. 

K.  S.  Latourette,  The  Development  of  China,  Chap.  6. 

Magazine  articles  are  the  best  and  most  easily  accessible  guides  to  most  of 
the  subjects  under  this  topic.  The  Reader’s  Guide  to  Periodical  Litera¬ 
ture  should  be  consulted.  Among  the  better  articles  are  the  following: 
Paul  Hutchinson,  The  Future  of  Religion  in  China,  The  Atlantic  Monthly, 
January,  1921. 

The  Literary  Digest,  66:  37-38. 

The  New  Republic ,  21:  114-117. 

Current  History  Magazine,  12:  992-1000. 

The  Review  of  Previews,  6i :  100- 102. 

The  files  of  Asia. 


I  23] 


I 


PREVIOUS  PUBLICATIONS 

1919 

Announcement  of  Founding  of  Institute. 

0 

1920 

Bulletin  No.  1.  First  Annual  Report  of  the  Director. 

Bulletin  No.  2.  For  Administrative  Authorities  of  Universities  and 
Colleges. 

Bulletin  No.  3.  Observations  on  Higher  Education  in  Europe. 
Opportunities  for  Higher  Education  in  France. 

Opportunities  for  Graduate  Study  in  the  British  Isles. 

1921 

Bulletin  No.  1.  Second  Annual  Report  of  the  Director. 

Bulletin  No.  2.  Opportunities  for  Higher  Education  in  Italy. 

Bulletin  No.  3.  Serials  of  an  International  Character 

(Tentative  List  for  Libraries) 

Bulletin  No.  4.  Educational  Facilities  in  the  United  States  for  South 
African  Students. 

Bulletin  No.  5.  Guide  Book  for  Foreign  Students  in  the  United  States. 
Bulletin  No.  6.  See  Syllabus  No.  VII. 

For  the  International  Relations  Clubs 

Syllabus  No.  I.  Outline  of  the  Covenant  of  the  League  of  Nations. 
Syllabus  No.  II.  The  Past,  Present  and  Future  of  the  Monroe  Doctrine. 
Syllabus  No.  III.  The  History  of  Russia  from  Earliest  Times. 

Syllabus  No.  IV.  The  Russian  Revolution. 

Syllabus  No.  V.  The  Question  of  the  Balkans. 

Syllabus  No.  VI.  Modern  Mexican  History- 
Syllabus  No.  VII.  Hispanic-American  History. 

Syllabus  No.  VIII.  The  Question  of  the  Near  East. 

Syllabus  No.  IX.  China  Under  the  Republic. 


ADVISORY  COUNCIL 


Addams,  Jane 
Alderman,  President  Edwin 
Ames,  Dean  Herman  V. 
Andrews,  Fanny  Fern 
Biggs,  Dr.  Herman 
Blakeslee,  Professor  G.  H. 
Brookings,  Robert  S. 

Bru&re,  Henry 
Bull,  Dr.  Carroll  G. 

Burton,  President  M.  L. 
Byrne,  James 

Coolidge,  Professor  Archibald 
Cravath,  Paul  D. 

Cunliffe,  Professor  J.  W. 
Davis,  Katherine  B. 

Downer,  Professor  Charles  A. 
Ely,  Professor  Richard  T. 
Filene,  A.  Lincoln 
Finley,  Dr.  John  H. 

Fosdick,  Dr.  Harry  E. 
Gilbert,  Cass 
Gildersleeve,  Dean  V.  C. 
Goodnow,  President  F.  J. 
Hadley,  Dr.  A.  T. 

Hale,  Dr.  George  E. 
Harrington,  Governor  E.  C. 
Hazen,  Professor  Charles  D. 
Hibben,  President  J.  G. 

Howe,  Professor  Henry  M. 
Hughes,  Hon.  Charles  E. 
Jenks,  Professor  Jeremiah 
Judson,  President  H.  P. 
Keppel,  Frederick  P. 

Keyser,  Professor  C.  J. 
Lovett,  President  Edgar 
Lowell,  President  A.  L. 


Mali,  Pierre 

Main,  President  J.  H.  T. 
Mannes,  David 
Marling,  Alfred  E. 
Meiklejohn,  President  A. 
Milliken,  Professor  R.  A. 
Moore,  Professor  E.  H. 
Morgan,  William  Fellowes 
Neilson,  President  W.  A. 
Noyes,  Professor  Arthur  A. 
Payne,  President  Bruce  R. 
Pendleton,  President  Ellen  T. 
Pupin,  Professor  Michael  I. 
Putnam,  Herbert 
Richardson,  Dr.  E.  C. 
Robinson,  Dr.  Edward 
Sachs,  Professor  Julius 
Salmon,  Dr.  Thomas  W. 
Schwedtman,  Ferdinand  C. 
Severance,  Mrs.  C.  A. 
Shanklin,  President  W.  A. 
Shorey,  Professor  Paul 
Shotwell,  Professor  J.  T. 
Showerman,  Professor  Grant 
Stimson,  Henry  L. 

Stokes,  Dr.  Anson  Phelps 
Storey,  Professor  Thomas  A. 
Suzzallo,  President  Henry 
Thomas,  President  M.  Carey 
Todd,  Professor  Henry  A. 
Townsend,  Hon.  John  G. 
Vincent,  Dr.  George  E. 

Wald,  Lillian  D. 

White,  Professor  Henry  C. 
Wilkins,  Professor  Ernest  H. 
Wilson,  Professor  George  G. 


MacCracken,  President  H.  N?*  Woodbridge,  Dean  F.  J.  E. 

Woolley,  President  Mary  E. 


